The Philosophical Foundations of Sufism
Sufism, the mystical tradition of Islam, which has been evolved over centuries from Hijra two hundred, marks a paradigm shift in the classical Islamic philosophy. Philosophy as such is revolved around scholasticism and rational interpretation of theological concepts, whereas Sufism focused on esoteric and mystical dimensions of faith and practice. Sufism developed its own terms, jargons and vocabulary. The analytical tools and method of study of Sufism too was unique.
The very word 'sufi' was new to Islamic culture when it is added to the Islamic terminology during the early Umayyad period. Proudly enough, the Sufis considered themselves as the first rankers of the Islamic fraternity, the true inheritors of the 'People of Suffa' who enjoyed the day night companionship of the messenger of God in his mosque in Madeena. The word 'sophia' arguably associated with Sufism denotes wisdom (i.e. 'Ma'rifa') akin to Philosophy, the love of knowledge.
Philosophical mysticism which is seemingly a cut above stream of the ritualistic practices has its roots in esoteric experience of religion. The verses of Quran and the prophetic sayings are explained accordingly. At times the philosophic stream goes hand in hand with the practical one. In fact the latter is the material actualization of the former. Sufis, unlike scholastic orthodoxy, resort to intuition rather than scriptural evidence. Subjectivity is weighed over objectivity as it were. As far as the Sufi is concerned the text is only a tool for elaborate, subjective or even farfetched interpretation. Textual constraints never limit the Sufi mystic philosopher. The primordial sources of divine wisdom irrespective of religion get mixed up in the mystical fountain of Sufism. That's why Rumi invites Christians, Jews, Muslims and Zoroastrians alike to his gathering. Thus the spiritual philosophy of Sufism acquires a universal domain. It has unfathomable depth as well as untraversable width. The vast compendium of Sufi literature handed down to us testifies this fact. It is almost impossible to summarize the thoughts of the Sufi masters on any ground.
Sufism has always been regarded as the arena of the privileged class of Gnostics who possess extra ordinary mental faculties. A poet put it thus: "The Gnostics have eyes with which they perceive what others do not". On the other hand traditional scholars of the religion often take cudgel against this privileged class on the ground they jolly well cross the limits of religious boundaries. Some even argue that the word Sufism is alien to Islam. But to Sufis it is the heart of the religion. In their view, Sufism is a constant and tireless search for the ultimate truth under the supervision of authentic and committed mentors. However here lies a chance for being deceived by impostors and charlatans. Even early authors like Abul Qasim Al Qushayri and Abul Hasan Ali b Al Hujweeri complain of such misguided deceivers. They say that they wrote their treaties to save true Sufism from the greedy lot "who made disrespect and shamelessness their religion".
Sufism, in brief, is a training system with its own time tested modus operandi to attain both internal and external purity and spiritual well being. It is a path (Thareeqa) which leads the traveller to the glorified destination of eternal reality ( Haqeeqat) through true wisdom (Ma'rifath). According to the masters of the path Sufism is the extended realization of 'Ihsan' referred to in the famous saying of the prophet Muhammad. Ihsan has been defined by Gabriel, the arch angel in the presence of the prophet as "worshiping God as if you see Him, and if you can't see Him, He sees you definitely". Thus Sufism is considered as the higher order of the religion.
The Teachings of the forerunners
In the formative period Sufism was abstinence from indulgence in worldly affairs to worship God without much external disturbances. The Sufis propagated simplicity, sincerity, generosity, piety and endurance. They found hardships as stepping stones to spiritual enlightenment. Some advocated total rejection of sensual pleasures to be true to God. Poverty was glorified. Ibrahim Ibn Adham, the King of Balkh, bid farewell to his palace and royal aminities. He trotted hills, valleys and deserts on foot in search of the ultimate truth. Matchless was the struggle he endured. Sufi history is rich with such voyages. The sufferings were intended to whet the spiritual organs i.e. nafs (self), ruh (soul), nasmah (astral body) and to weaken the body, the 'condemned' seat of carnal desires. Purification of inner self is at the core of Sufi practice. Rabiyathul Adaviya, the towering Sufi mistress even rejected the rewards offered hereafter. She prayed:
"O Lord, if I worship you because of Fear of Hell,
Then burn me in Hell;
If I worship You because I desire Paradise,
then exclude me from Paradise;
But if I worship You for Yourself alone,
Then deny me not your Eternal Beauty".
It is God the one and only destination this rare species of devotees long for. Another interesting sect of Sufis has trodden the path of blame in an effort to make their love of God free free corruption. They wanted to be blamed by people just as the prophet blamed by his opponents in Makha. Whoever is approved by God is disapproved by common folk is the underlying principle in this practice. Blames may come following the right way, or from an intentional act or from negligence of law. Sufis wanted to get rid of self conceit and ego by alluring blames from public. Jalaluddin Rumi was advised by his spiritual mentor Shams to spend a whole day in tavern in order to overcome his pride. Mastering patience is the added benefit.
Some Sufis believed that striving to win bread is a gross violation of the principle of trust (thawakkul) in God. Shaqeekul Balkhi, the desciple of Ibrahim Ibn Adham said that it was prohibited to work for earning food. Harith al Muhasibi said that salvation can only be attained through self mortification. Constant and consistent moral refinement is the way to achieve the goal. It was the hair splitting disputes among the rank and profile jurists and scholars forced Harith al Muhasibi to turn to Sufism. Uncompromising obedience to God and His messenger is the nucleus of Harith's brand of Sufism. Du-nunul Misri, another earliest master advised people to stay away from sinful acts and to kill passions. He also taught the lessons if self annihilation. Our mind should be free of everything except God. He preferred seclusion to mingling with people. God will bestow divine knowledge (Ma'rifath) to those who worship Him alone in the right manner. No medium is needed to receive the divine wisdom. It will be automatically reflected in the hearts of the genuine seekers. The words and deeds of the Gnostics, thus, will be guided and guarded by the creator of the universe. In Du-Nun's words: "The better one knows God the greater will he be annihilated in God".
Bayezid Bisthami (d 874) experienced the state fana (annihilation) and rapturously proclaimed "Subhanee" (glory to me) instead of "Subhanallah" (glory to God). He wandered lonely for thirty years. He slept very little. Ate almost nothing. Never compromised on his religious obligations. He was metaphorically blind, dumb and deaf to earthly enjoyments. He lost in the great ocean of oneness. To him the single existent was God. He listened to his inner voice which said to him: " It's I who you". He felt that he was the Arsh (throne) and Kurs (chair) of God. He found all the prophets in himself. He equated his spiritual state to the Mi'raj (ascent into the heavens) of the prophet.
Junaid al Baghdadi (d. 910), the great master of the formative period of Sufism didn't approve of Bisthami's ecstasy. He said that Bisthami had failed to attain the final goal of Sufism. Junaid acknowledges his indebtedness to Hazrat Ail Ibn Abi Thalib, the fourth Caliph for his knowledge ( Ilm) and wisdom (Hikmat). He was of the opinion that self mortification is disastrous. He preferred sobriety to spiritual intoxication. Intoxication may result in madness, he said. Instead of Sufi Kirkha (Woolen coat) he wore white robe and turban. He refused to accept Mansoor al Hallaj as his disciple. When Hallaj argued for the prominence of intoxication over sobriety, Junaid disagreed with him saying: "I beg to disagree with you. Sobriety suggests firmness of one's relationship with God, while intoxication denotes excess of desire and love. And these two are beyond human effort. Junaid tried to synchronize the exoteric and the esoteric dimensions of Islam. He called for people to hold Quran in the right hand and Sunnah in the other.
Hallaj and his controversial utterance "Anal Haqq" on which account he was put to death with the consent of reputed scholars of the time deserves special attention. Ana means I and Haqq means the truth. The utterance altogether means 'I am the truth' which echoes the Upanishad mantra 'Aham Brahamasmi', the key sentence of Advaita philosophy. Hallaj', in the light of his statement was accused of propagating pantheism. Junaid had already warned Hallaj against provoking people by making such a public statement without thinking of its consequences.
It is note worthy the advent of Isharqiyyun movement in Islamic philosophy which has its roots in Ibnu sina’s Eastern Philosophy. Later Suhrawardi al Maqthool developed it as Illuninationist Philosophy. Philosophers like Ibnu Thufail, Suhrawardi, and Mullah Sadra side with the sentiments of Hallaj. Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jeelani the renowned Sufi leader of later times said that he would have prevented Hallaj from being killed had he been three at the time of the historic trial. Many Sufis take Hallaj's was in a transitory state of mystical reunion with God. The prophet said one can elevate to such a height that his hand can be the hand of God etc. In the light of similar sayings of the prophet Hallaj can be justified.
Gazzali: From Philosophy to Sufism
Great scholar and author Imam al Gazzali after mastering nearly all branches of contemporary knowledge gave up his lucrative professorship and turned to Sufism. His disillusion with traditional knowledge forced him to look for a better alternative which can answer the fundamental questions. He reconciled the Asharite thelogy and Shafi jurisprudence with the 'mystico- psychological insights of Sufism. Sufism was widely accepted as the inner meaning of Islam mainly thanks to Al- Gazzali. He successfully explained the inner meanings of daily prayers and other religious rites. He preferred mysticism to philosophy and criticized the former on twenty grounds in his Thahafathul Falasifa (The Incoherence of Philosophers).
Jeelani and his Teachings
Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jeelani (d. 1166) led a massive campaign against the social evils of his time. He thought that the basic cause of social degradation was people's indulgence in material pleasures. Though he recognized the importance of balance between material and spiritual well being he wanted to over emphasize the evils of materialistic outlook as it was too much detrimental to the society. He advised people not to yield to the temporal desires.
He divided people into four categories. Firstly, ordinary people who pay little attention to spiritual matters. They have neither heart nor tongue. Secondly, Scholars who eloquently preach religion but practice just the opposite. They have tongue but no heart. Thirdly, the pious men who constantly purify their hearts never minding others. They have heart but no tongue. Fourthly, the righteous preachers of Islam whose words do not contradict their deeds. They have both heart and tongue.
Sheikh Jeelani illustrates the four stages of spiritual development as follows:
a) Pious life strictly following the do's don'ts of divine law and not the depend people for livelihood.
b) Internal and external saintly life guided by inner voice in compliance with the commandments of the law giver.
c) Total submission to God.
d) Annihilation (Fana) in God.
In Jeelani's pp point of view Sufism is the willing acceptance of simplicity, piety, abstinence, generosity, sincerity and other virtues. A practicing Sufi can perceive the majesty (Jalal) and beauty (Jamal) of God at different occasions. Everything in the universe is a manifestation of one or the other divine attribute.
Suhrawardi (d.1234)
The founder of the Sufi order known in his name Suhrawardi penned philosophical treaties of Sufism titled 'Awariful Marif'. He sees Sufism as an attribute of heart rather than that of head. Spiritual insight, pure knowledge and moral character constitute the quintessential of Sufism. Knowledge can be of three types: Knowledge by inference, Knowledge by perception and Knowledge by intuition. Law (Shariath) and Reality (Haqeeqat) are interdependent. Sufism is the greater Jihad against lower self. It is advisable to live in close company in a secluded place (Khankah) immersed in remembrance of God. He leaves the question of celibacy to the discretion of the individual mystic. The seeker should undergo a step by step regressive training which includes self evaluation, introspection, contemplation, meditation, submission and detachment. A mystic should be essentially a perfect servant of God. When one abides in God his thoughts and actions will be illuminated by divine light.
Sufi Doctrines: An Over View
1. Unity of Being:
Love of God is the sum total of Sufism. How far one can go in pursuit of the divine love? Bisthami, Hallaj and many found themselves transformed part and parcel of divinity somehow. The union of heart with God is comprehensible in religious terms. That is indeed the actualization of the article of faith "I witness that there is no God but God". It is said that one can internalize the divine attributes through prayer, remembrance of God and meditation. It's crystal clear that a total transformation of individual self is thus possible. Some masters of Sufism went further ahead and argued men can identify themselves with God. According to them there exists nothing but God. La Ilaha Illallah means La Moujooda Illallah. There is no God but God means there is no existence other than God. Though this concept prevailed among Sufis well in advance it was Ibnu Arabi (d. 1240) who popularized it through his doctrine called 'Wahdathul Wujood' (unity of being). Ibn Arabi praises God who created all things being himself part of the essence of God. To him reality is one and indivisible. There is only one reality- that is God. Nothing except Him does exist. All the other existents gained existence from the sole reality. The reality despite being a single being has two dimensions namely Khaliq (Creator) and Khalq (Created). The created world or the phenomenal universe is the manifestation of the Creator's different attributes. God described himself by the manifestation. Each and every object in the world refers back to the creator. God reveals Himself through them. It's interesting to note that the contradicting opposites manifest the same creator. The metaphor of a circle can describe this idea well. A circle is whole round constituted by connected points. Each point is part of the circle. You cannot view one point separating from the circle. Here the part represents the whole. If the circle is the divine essence, every object in the created world is essentially part of it. Ibnu Arabi' interpretation of 'Thowheed' (unity) as "Wahdathul Wujood'' quite naturally provoked non Sufi scholars. It has been criticized by eminent religious scholars. It attracted criticism from Sufi sector as well.
2. Unity of Appearance ( Wshdathushuhood):
Centuries back, Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, the renowned Indian Master of Sufi Path came forward with a different version of ' Wahdathul Wujood' in the name 'Wshdathusguhood which means unity of Appearance or Oneness of Witness. This is understood as an experiential stage of unity of being. Sirhindi was obviously trying to reconcile Ibn Arabi's views with the fundamentals of Islamic faith. He said that God and His creations cannot be perceived identical. One cannot substitute the other. Creator is not the created. Nor vice- versa. The unity is not in existence but in the perception or the experience that occurs in the observer's mind. And the mental state is transitory not permanent. In such a spiritual state the mystic sees only a single reality, the absolute pure Being. Then in his mind everything appears to be one. Sirhindi didn't want the misguided people use the doctrine of unity of as a cover to give up religious rites and related obligations.
3. The Light of Muhammad:
Another important doctrine of Sufism is the concept of Noor/ Haqeeqat Muhammadee or in other words, he light or the reality of Muhammad, the messenger of God. According to this doctrine God created the light or reality of Muhammad first. All the other created beings are brought forth from that light. In other words in the realm of created spirits the soul of the prophet preceded all. That's why ' Ashadu an la Ilaha Illallah' (I witness that there is no God save Allah) follows 'Wa Ashhadu anna Muhammadu Rasoolallah' (And I witness that Muhammad is His messenger). Adam, the first human being is created from the soul of Muhammad. Sufi scholars cite Hadithes (sayings of the prophet) of disputed authority to substantiate this doctrine.
4. Perfect Man ( Insanul Kamil):
Prophet Muhammad, besides being the cause and goal of creation in Sufi cosmology, is the perfect man. He is the best among the creation. He is the perfect man who was able to realize all the possible noble qualities in him. Ibnu Arabi, Rumi and Fareedudhin Athar shared the idea of Perfect Man in their works. Abdul Karim Jeeli (d.1428) wrote a lengthy poem on Perfect Man in which he discusses the different stages of perfect man. The perfect man is the central pole around which all beings revolve. The Perfect Man is represented by saints in all ages. The mystic is on a constant travel towards perfection. Since man is created primordially in the 'form' of God and the ' spirit' of God was blown into him he can achieve divine qualities which may help him achieve at least some of the blessed qualities of the perfect man. Sufism accelerates this process.
5. Spiritual states and stations (Hal and Maqam):
In the training process of self purification the seeker of the truth is destined to pass through a number of stages the first of which is repentance (thowba) and the culmination is annihilation (fana) and subsistence (baqa). A Sufi's life is a continuous journey towards spiritual realization and final salvation. During the journey the Sufi experiences different mental sensations and feels that have reached certain stations. Junaid described this experience as "dying in oneself and resurrection in God". Each stage demands special responsibilities from the follower. Gradually, the veils between God and the seeker / lover gradually disappear as a result. As to the number stages masters differ. The 'Hal' and 'Maqam' are interchangeable. A hal becomes a maqam when it persists. In general the stages are seven: Repentance (Thowba), Piety (Wara'), Renunciation (Zuhd), Poverty (Faqr), Submission (Thawakkul) and Content (Rida). These seven stages are described as seven oceans in Athar's 'Conference Birds'.
6. Love and Gnosis ( Ishq and Irfan):
Love ultimate and Gnosis untarnished is the final accomplishment of Sufism. Unconditional love for God is the fuel that moves a mystic to Gnosis. The lover of God (Ashiq) feels an overwhelming passion to lose himself in God. He hankers to annihilate his human nature and subsist in his beloved beyond recognition. In Sufi parlance love can be of three types. Ishq Majazi (metaphorical love), Ishq- e- Rasool (Love of the prophet) and Ishq-e, - Haqeeqi (The real love or love of God). Ahmed Gazzali , in his Sawanih illustrates the amalgam of both human and divine streams of love. The metaphorical love is ordinary love that one feels towards created beings and objects. Man - Woman love is one example. As Sufis put it this ordinary love can be sublimated to the real love. Love of Rasool is part of Islam without which no believer can fulfill his faith. The love ultimate is the love of God which is the real love. This highest order of love brings divinely inspired knowledge (Irfan). If you love God you will be dearer to him. If you are dearer to God, He will enlighten you. If you are enlightened you are a true mystic.
